Principles of Learning and the Teaching of Social Ballroom Dance: Part 1
This is the first of three articles on the application of principles of learning to the teaching of ballroom dance. The first article will present a summary of learning theories and principles of instructional design applicable to the teaching of ballroom dance. The second will discuss implications for the dance lesson. The third article will describe the application of systematic instructional design to the beginning dance curriculum.
Teaching and Learning
Contemporary social dance instruction took its form through the emergence of commercial dance studios in the early 20th century, concurrent with a surge in research on human learning. Unfortunately, those two worlds did not coalesce; the ballroom dance curriculum evolved with little influence from research on human learning. By ignoring the psychology of learning, the ballroom dance curriculum has emerged as both inefficient and frustrating. There is also evidence that a significant portion of social dance lessons are more for entertainment than for learning to dance.
Though research on human learning was accelerating during the early part of the twentieth century, the emergence of its applied component, Instructional Systems Design (ISD), did not gain wide recognition until World War II, when it became a major force in the design and development of training programs for the military and for industries serving the war effort. Following the war, industries recognized the value of their improved training programs and retained much of their training force. Other trainers and design specialists moved from the military and industry into the nations rapidly expanding school programs. Research and development continued, and teacher education programs incorporated systematic instructional design principles into the curriculum. The consequence has been continued improvement in the public school curriculum. There is little evidence of any influence of ISD on ballroom dance teaching. Even so, there is much that research in learning theory and ISD could offer to the ballroom dance teacher.
Learning Theories.
The following sections will describe and briefly explain a few aspects of learning theory and related research that seem particularly applicable to ballroom dance teaching/learning. Though the exposition will be short, for those not familiar with the psychological concepts mentioned, a search using the associated terms and names should yield ample detail. Fortunately, one does not need a thorough understanding of the science involved to be able to apply the associate principles. Unfortunately, like ignorance of civil law, ignorance of these principles will not affect the consequences of violating them.
Learning. The most widely accepted definition: "learning is a change in behavior or behavioral potential that can be retained and is not ascribable to growth." Thus, the teacher sets about to change student behavior; if there is no learning, there is no teaching. The extent to which the teacher states precise objectives and plans their lessons to accomplish those objectives is a measure of their integrity as a teacher. The extent to which they accomplish their objectives is a measure of their success. The extend to which they assess their results and adjust their lesson plans accordingly is a measure of their professionalism.
Behaviorism. Behaviorists assume that learning is a result of responses to external events and is composed of connections between stimuli and a responses. Intelligence is determined by the number of connections. The earliest scientific research on learning was done with animals in a controlled laboratory environment, with examination of the implications on human learning. The study of animal and related human behavior gave rise to a branch of psychology called behaviorism. Though often seen as simplistic, this form of learning dominates the human psyche; most human learning exemplifies principles of behaviorism
Behaviorist pioneers include: Thorndike, whose early observations and postulations were a major influence on all who followed, Pavlov, and his theories of Classical Conditioning, and Skinner, whose research focused on Operant Conditioning.
Behaviorist Principles. Research by Pavlov, Skinner, and others seemed to confirm principles elucidated by Thorndike years earlier.
Law of effect - responses followed by a reward will be strengthened.
Law of readiness - responses can be chained together to satisfy an objective.
Law of exercise - responses become strengthened with, and weakened without, practice.
Cognitive Learning. Cognitive theories describe learning as a complex process that utilizes problem-solving and insightful thinking in addition to an external stimulus-response chain. A primary link between behaviorism and cognitive theory was elucidated by George A. Miller. In 1956 Miller reported that short-term memory can only hold five to nine "chunks" (meaningful units) of information. The limited capacity of short term memory became a basic element of all subsequent theories of memory and has been verified at all levels of cognitive processing.
Though a "chunk" is not always precisely defined, at most it represents only a few stimulus-response connections and the associated mental processes. For example, "close, step adjacent to the stationary foot, on beat four" might comprise one or two "chunks" of information, depending on the capability or experience of the student. "Execute a box step in closed position" might be one "chunk" for the experienced dancer, but could easily represent upwards of a dozen "chunks," and perhaps more than twenty, for the beginner.
Cognitive Principles.
Short term memory is limited to seven chunks of information.
Planning is an inherent cognitive process.
Behavior is hierarchically organized
Sensory-Motor Learning. This category is central to dance, as well as other sports. The combination of both mental and physical responses associated with sensory-motor learning seem to give rise to phenomena not encountered in predominantly cognitive processes. Furthermore, there are also implications that sensory-motor learning could be enhanced by the implementation of more cognitive processes than are often encountered in the typical sensory-motor learning environment. Marteniuk, in particular, has contributed significantly to the understanding and application of principles of sensory-motor learning.
Sensory-Motor Principles.
Slow the rate at which information is presented.
Reduce the amount of information that needs to be processed.
Guided learning seems most appropriate for high proficiency.
Problem-solving (a.k.a. discovery) promotes recall and transfer to a new situation.
Repetition after proficiency is achieved will increase retention.
Learning appears to be the same under massed and spaced practice.
Collectively, the principles associated with these critical areas of learning have major implications for the dance lesson. The next article in this series will address some of those implications and describe a method, ISD, of applying them systematically to a curriculum. The final article in this series will provide a prototype application of ISD to a dance curriculum
Principles of Learning and the Teaching of Social Ballroom Dance: Part 2
Part 1 - Part 2 - Part 3
The first article in this series reviewed briefly those aspects of the psychology of learning most relevant to the teaching of ballroom dance, including principles of behaviorism, cognitive learning, and sensory-motor learning. The following will describe some of the implications of these principles for the dance lesson.
Behaviorism. Behaviorists assume that learning is a result of responses to external events and is composed of connections between stimuli and a responses. Though often seen as simplistic, this form of learning dominates the human psyche; most human learning exemplifies principles of behaviorism
Behaviorist Principles
- Law of Effect - responses followed by a reward will be strengthened.
- Law of Readiness - responses can be chained together to satisfy an objective.
- Law of Exercise - responses become strengthened with, and weakened without, practice.
Much of behaviorism seems self-evident. Few would argue the Law of Effect or the Law of Exercise, yet there are implications of these laws that might go beyond one's initial presumptions. We will return to these later. The Law of Readiness has implications that might not be self-evident; it alerts the teacher to the need to examine requisite behavior. It is the first principle that must be considered in the planning of any lesson.
Law of Readiness implies that connections associated with a sequence of actions must be chained together in order for that sequence to be completed. A dance "step" is a series of actions that are chained together to form a whole. Failure of a teacher to insure that all requisite links are available to the student leads to frustration and perhaps failure. It is an easy argument that most of the initial frustration and failure associated with learning dance are directly connected to this law and to the limitations of short term memory.
Cognitive Theories describe learning as a complex process that utilizes problem-solving and insightful thinking in addition to an external stimulus-response chain. The limited capacity of short term memory became a basic element of all subsequent theories of memory and has been verified at all levels of cognitive processing.
Cognitive Principles
- Short term memory is limited to seven chunks of information.
- Planning is a fundamental cognitive process.
- Behavior is hierarchically organized.
Short term memory is limited to seven chunks of information.
It is the rare person who can recall more than nine new items of information, the average is seven, and many people are limited to less than seven. Ignoring the limitations of short term memory is arguably second only to the Law of Readiness in causing frustration and failure. Any basic dance step will encompass well beyond seven items; thus the beginner is already facing a challenge they will not likely soon overcome. Beyond the beginner, the intermediate dancer is often frustrated by disregard of this characteristic of the human psyche, for it can be "double trouble" for both student and teacher. Faced with more than they can remember, the student, typically not aware that the teacher has exceeded any reasonable expectations, often feels inadequate, confidence is destroyed, and learning is diminished. Another down side to excessive demands on memory is that the capacity appears to be even further diminished. Ask for seven, and you might well get seven; ask for ten, and you might get no more than five. Research by Swiller (1999) suggested that Miller was rather generous and that the limitations might be as low as two or three units.
Planning is a fundamental cognitive process.
A further implication associated with this critical limitation is that we are a "pattern-seeking" species; we look for patterns constantly, we prioritize, and we sequence. Lacking guidance, and faced with memory overload, the student will establish their own hierarchy, which might well be vastly different from that of the teacher. For example, if a teacher presented only nine new items to a class, without clearly identifying the seven they expected to class to remember, they could expect that for half the class, no two students would recall the same hierarchy of new items.
Behavior is hierarchically organized.
In addition to looking for patterns and sequences, humans tend to prioritize, and this becomes even more important when mental capacity is exceeded. Though most people might not know the precise limitations of memory, facing its limitations is a common experience. Even so, many teachers unnecessarily clog student memory by prescribing a sequence of variations, with the sequence itself occupying most of the capacity of memory. With memory primarily focused on what to do, there is little or no room for remembering how to do it. If the teacher does not prescribe, in hierarchical order, the seven critical items to recall, the student will. Ignoring the limitations of short term memory is one of the more egregious violations of principles of learning.
Sensory-Motor Learning
Central to dance, sensory-motor learning could be enhanced by the implementation of more cognitive processes than are often encountered in the typical sensory-motor learning environment.
Sensory-Motor Principles.
- Slow the rate at which information is presented
- Reduce the amount of information that needs to be processed.
- Guided learning seems most appropriate for high proficiency.
- Problem-solving promotes recall and transfer to a new situation.
- Repetition after proficiency is achieved will increase retention.
- Learning appears to be the same under massed and spaced practice.
Slow the rate at which information is presented
Reduce the amount of information that needs to be processed.
Sensory-Motor learning is complex, and requires coordination between thought processes and muscular activity. It is easy to overload the student if the teacher is not highly sensitive to the rate of presentation and the quantity of information presented. It is the rare dance class that does not greatly exceed the limitations that precipitated these principles.
Guided learning seems most appropriate for high proficiency.
Insistence on precision is appropriate for the competition or exhibition dancer, but such precision is likely not the most effective technique for the social dancer. The wise dance teacher selects carefully the the degree of precision appropriate to each aspect of their lesson so that they do not demand more than is justified for the desired outcome.
Problem-solving promotes recall and transfer to a new situation. Though less precise, the social dancer might well exceed the scope of the competition or exhibition dancer, often comfortable with more than twenty dance styles. Teachers who interject problem solving into their class do much to enhance learning and learning transfer, both of significant benefit to the student. Furthermore, this can be done while reducing the pressure on memory.
For example, teachers often prescribe, "do two basics, then a side break to the right and a side break to the left, then an underarm turn and return to a basic step in closed position." That takes up most of immediate memory. Rather, let the student couples decide when to deviate from the basic. This simple exercise not only frees memory to hold more important information, but it reinforces the need for independent lead/follow competence by allowing the students to control their own sequencing initiatives and responses.
Repetition after proficiency is achieved will increase retention.
The road to sensory-motor competence can be broken into four sections: initial confusion, replication, proficiency, mastery. Any new movement sequence will create confusion until the student has process and sequenced the requisite enabling acts. Then they begin to replicate the sequence demonstrated by the teacher. We sufficient replications, the rough spots are overcome and they become proficient. With additional practice, the sequence is moved to long term memory and they attain mastery.
Learning appears to be the same under massed and spaced practice.
Unlike cognitive learning, motor learning seems more dependent on the total number or repetitions than the timing of practice sessions. All too often the teacher moves on as soon as a major portion of the class demonstrates the ability to replicate. Though a few teachers continue practice until most are proficient, few teachers allow practice past the point of proficiency so that the sequence can be retained. Since so many dance students do not practice between lessons, learning can be enhance if the teacher allows extended time for practice, that also provides opportunity to work with those struggling with replication or proficiency.
These are only a sampling of the ways that principles of learning might influence the dance class. In the final article in this triptych, these principles will be applied in a systematic manner to design three lessons for the beginning dancer.
Principles of Learning and the Teaching of Social Ballroom Dance: Part 3
Part 1 - Part 2 - Part 3
The first article in this series reviewed briefly those aspects of the psychology of learning most relevant to the teaching of ballroom dance. Included were principles of behaviorism, cognitive learning, and sensory-motor learning. The second article described some of the implications of those principles for the dance lesson. The third deals with the application of Instructional Systems Design (ISD) to the dance curriculum.
Instructional Systems Design. This description of ISD is, of necessity, brief. Even so, it will introduce process and illustrate the nature of the product of the application of ISD to the social ballroom dance curriculum. One might argue with both the goals and the objectives used herein; one might also have a distinctly different set of goals. Even so, it is more difficult to argue with the principles involved. Whatever one's goals, any attempt to accomplish them through the craft of teaching inherently involves the nature of human learning. Much is known about human learning, and the associated principles of instructional design are proven corollaries. They are as much a part of nature a is the law of gravity, and, as with the law of gravity, ignoring them might well have unintended consequences.
The ISD Model. There are several models for implementing the principles of systematic instructional design, and they each have their application to the instructional problem for which they were designed or selected. Even so, there are common principles, and it is that set of principles that drives the development of each model. Intricate training programs with many complex tasks might require a rather complex model, complete with numerous feedback loops to assure mastery. For the purposes of this illustration, a linear model will be used, one that should be easy to understand and certainly adequate for use in designing a dance curriculum.
The following components are typical of any ISD model.
State Goals and Objectives
Analyze Tasks
Assess Students
Sequence Tasks
Develop Presentation
Implement
Evaluate
State Goals and Objectives. In this stage of the process, the focus is on the intent of the instruction in both a general (goal) and specific (objective) context. Goal statements provide a general description of intent; they may be written from any reasonable perspective. Since goals are general in nature, each component might not need a separate goal statement. Objectives provide the specifics, they should be written from the learner's perspective, and they should describe what the successful learner is to do and the conditions under which they are to do it. The more detailed the objectives the greater the likelihood of success.
Analyze Tasks. Task analysis provides the details for assuring that the learner can progress in a reasonable and timely manner. Though one of the more tedious components, task analysis is critical to systematic design, and often makes subsequent decisions almost self-evident. At this stage, resist the tendency to assume anything. It is much better to overanalyze than to risk omitting a critical, requisite task.
Assess Students. Student assessment can take many forms. Some situations enable detailed assessment of students and the ability to place each in a personalized program. Other situations require considerable presumptions about student behavior. In either case, knowledge or assumptions regarding the student enables partitioning the list of tasks into those that can be assumed and those that must be taught. Quality assessment assures that the student is neither confused nor insulted.
Sequence Tasks. Having identified the tasks, one must sequence them in an orderly and reasonable manner so that mastery is possible at each level. Sometimes such sequencing is discretionary, other times sequencing is inherent to the task. No task should be taught until its requisites have been mastered, and no set of tasks should be taught that are too complex for presenting in a lesson. If a task or group of tasks appears too complex for a lesson, it should be moved to another position in the sequence or broken down into multiple tasks that can be ordered and sequenced responsibly. Work on the presentation should never begin until one is assured that all enabling, requisite, and terminal tasks are of reasonable scope and properly sequenced.
Develop Presentation. The development of presentation components can be one of the more rewarding aspect of the process. With detailed objectives, thorough task analysis, and accurate student assessment data in hand, one can comfortably and confidently concentrate on the best method of presenting each individual task and linking it to previous and subsequent tasks in the sequence.
Implement. Though one might consider simply implementing the instruction with no additional thought to the process, the conscientious teacher continually reassesses each step in the process for feedback to the appropriate development stage for improvement of the whole. This could range from adjusting a presentation to reordering the task sequence for more efficient and effective learning. Systematic instruction is dynamic, and continued assessment and feedback into the process not only provides opportunity for improvement but also helps keep the presentation from becoming routine to the point of boredom.
Systematic instructional design enables you to know that you know your material and to know that you know how to present it effectively. The following is an example of the implementation ISD on this writer's version of a beginning dance curriculum. Your task is to accept the writer's perspective and examine the subsequent process, then consider implementing the process on your own goals and objectives. For efficiency, statements were kept as short as possible, and parallelism was sacrificed in deference to brevity. The reader's ability to distinguish between cognitive and motor tasks is presumed.
Implementing the process. As tempting as it might be, one best not try to apply the ISD process in isolation; there are too many details even for the experienced. With over forty years of experience as a designer, consultant and as director for the division of instructional development for a major university, the following example could not have been developed without feedback from students, and it will continue to be refined. Ideally, a team should consist of both design and subject specialists; even so, a team of dance teachers, willing to discuss the principles and follow the ISD outline, should expect to make major improvement in their curriculum.
Application to Ballroom Dance. The application provided herein is for demonstration purposes, and it might differ significantly from your curriculum. The purpose is to illustrate the application, not offer you a curriculum component. It is also important to consider the perspective by which the following should be perceived. There is no initial dance style involved; beginning students notoriously neglect styling initially because they are focusing on gross motor skills, not the more refined motor skills involved with styling. Furthermore, from a design perspective, sequencing precludes styling in the beginning lessons. Though styling might be taught prior to introducing variations, this writer elected to teach a few variations prior to styling. Having mastered a basic box step with a few variations, which students would be encouraged to do with any music they wanted and in any venue they chose, they can be taught "social" styling for Foxtrot, Rumba, and Waltz in one lesson.
Beginning Ballroom Dance
Goal. Student couples will learn a basic box step and implement it along the line of dance; they will also be able to interject twinkles while moving along the line of dance, ending twinkles facing wall, facing line of dance, or facing opposite line of dance, at the leader's discretion. Couples will progress along line of dance interjecting a weave (also known as serpentine and progressive twinkles) at the leader's discretion.
Objectives.
Objective B1: Basic Box Step. In closed position, student couples will execute a box step, forward and backward, to a song in 4/4 time, nominally 128 beats per minute, in SQQ cadence, while moving discretionarily along the line of dance.
Objective T1: Twinkle. Given music in 4/4 time at nominally 128 beats per minute, each couple, facing the wall in closed position, will execute a twinkle, exactly one step in promenade position along line of dance, and return to closed position facing wall.
Objective T2: Twinkle. Given music in 4/4 time at nominally 128 beats per minute, each couple, facing the wall in closed position, will execute a twinkle, exactly one step in promenade position along line of dance, and return to closed position facing along the line of dance
Objective T3: Twinkle. Given music in 4/4 time at nominally 128 beats per minute, each couple, facing the wall in closed position, will execute a twinkle, exactly one step in promenade position along line of dance, and return to closed position facing opposite the line of dance.
Task Analysis: Basic Box Step
Objective B1: Basic Box Step. In closed position, student couples will execute a box step, forward and backward, to a song in 4/4 time, nominally 128 beats per minute, in SQQ cadence, while moving discretionarily, following Line of Dance guidelines.
Requisites:
Walk normally
Step implies weight shift
Familiarity with western music
Distinguish between even (2/4, 4/4) and odd meters (3/4)
Step on selected beats
Tasks: Closed Position
- Upper arms horizontal
- Elbows slightly forward of torso
- Right hand on shoulder blade
- Slight pressure
- Pressure at follower's arm
- Follower's arm toward shoulder
- Extended forearm slightly bent
- Hands clasped gently
- Firmness at shoulder to relaxed at wrist
- Torsos juxtaposed to the left
- Look over partner's right shoulder
- Right foot tracks between partners feet
- Left foot steps outside partner
- Step normally
Tasks: Box Step in Closed Position
- Line of Dance counterclockwise
- Men begin on left foot, women on right
- Step forward/backward on beat one
- Moving foot to stationary foot on beat two
- Step to the side on beat three
- Close on beat four
- Close in dance means to step adjacent to stationary foot
- Box step has two halves: 1(2)34, 5(6)78
Task Analysis: Twinkle T1
Objective T1: Twinkle. Given music in 4/4 time at nominally 128 beats per minute, each couple, facing the wall in closed position, will execute a twinkle, exactly one step in promenade position along line of dance, and return to closed position facing wall.
Requisite abilities:
Forward and backward box step, in closed position, in the appropriate time signature, i.e. 3/4 or 4/4.
Tasks:
Facing wall, execute first half of box step (steps 1, 2, & 3)
End first half of box in promenade position
- Lead with torso, pressure on the back, and slight inward pull of extended hand
- Feet turned nominally quarter turn toward line of dance
- Head facing clasped hands.
- Upper torso nearer parallel than feet
Step 4 taken along line of dance in CBMP
Step 5 taken to the side and along line of dance
Step 6 end in closed position facing wall
Reminders: keep torsos upright, do not allow inside leg to tilt torso, upper body slightly under quarter turn
New items:
- Facing wall
- Lead with torso, pressure on the back and inward pull
- Upper torso nearer parallel than feet
- Feet turned nominally quarter turn
- Head facing clasped hands
- CBMP
Task Analysis: Twinkle T2
Objective T2: Twinkle. Given music in 4/4 time at nominally 128 beats per minute, each couple, facing the wall in closed position, will execute a twinkle, exactly one step in promenade position along line of dance, and return to closed position facing along the line of dance
Requisites:
Forward and backward box step, in closed position.
Twinkle, T1, beginning and ending facing wall.
Tasks:
Facing wall, execute first half of box step (steps 1, 2, & 3)
End first half of box in promenade position
- Lead with torso, pressure on the back, and slight inward pull of extended hand
- Feet turned nominally quarter turn toward line of dance
- Head facing clasped hands.
- Upper torso nearer parallel than feet
Step 4 taken along line of dance in CBMP. Leader shortens step, pivots to face line of dance, and leads follower into pivot to face opposite line of dance.
Step 5 taken along line of dance
Step 6 end in closed position facing line of dance.
New Items:
1. Leader foreshortens step and pivots. Follower follows lead and pivots.
2. Step 5 taken along line of dance.
Task Analysis: Twinkle T3
Objective T3: Twinkle. Given music in 4/4 time at nominally 128 beats per minute, each couple, facing the wall in closed position, will execute a twinkle, exactly one step in promenade position along line of dance, and return to closed position facing opposite the line of dance
Requisites:
Forward and backward box step, in closed position.
Twinkle, T1, beginning and ending facing wall.
Tasks
Facing wall, execute first half of box step (steps 1, 2, & 3)
End first half of box in promenade position
Lead with torso, pressure on the back, and slight inward pull of extended hand
- Feet turned nominally quarter turn toward line of dance
- Head facing clasped hands.
- Upper torso nearer parallel than feet
Step 4 taken along line of dance in CBMP. Leader extends step, pivots to face opposite line of dance, and leads follower into pivot to face line of dance.
Step 5 taken along line of dance
Step 6 end in closed position facing opposite line of dance.
New Items:
1. Leader extends Step 4 and pivots. Follower follows lead and pivots.
2. Step 5 taken along line of dance.
Weave
(a.k.a. Serpentine or Progressive Twinkles)
Note. The “twinkle” is not a clearly defined term, and several figures that use a 3-step pattern that deviates from the basic are referred to as twinkles. In this syllabus, twinkle means exactly one step in promenade; others use the term more liberally. The use of Weave or Serpentine for this variation seems to help avoid confusion.
Objective W: Weave. Given music in 4/4 time at nominally 128 beats per minute, each couple, facing the line of dance, in closed position, will execute a series of outside partner steps on Step 1 and Step 4, moving along the line of dance with slight turning at the waist and minimal turning at top.
Requisites:
Box step in closed position. Twinkle.
Tasks:
Facing line of dance, execute first half of box step
End first half of box with legs and feet turned slightly leftward, slight twist at waist, minimal change at top.
Step 4, leader forward, outside partner with right foot in CBMP; follower back with left foot in CBMP.
Step 5, leader side and slightly forward; follower side, slightly back, and points toe as appropriate in preparation for next sequence.
Step 6, close, turning slightly for next pattern.
Continue outside partner as above, beginning on opposite feet, end in closed position for continuation with basic, or end in promenade for a twinkle.
New Items
1. End first half of box with legs and feet approximately quarter turn,
2. Turn waist slightly,
3. Maintain upper frame orientation.
4. Step 4, outside partner in CBMP
5. Step 5, step in preparation for next pattern.
6. Step 6, close in orientation for next pattern.
Beginning Ballroom Dance: Planning the Lesson
Review of the task analysis indicates that the major impediment for students is the mastery of the basic box step in closed position, which contains as many as twenty-five tasks, most of which would be new. Fortunately, after mastery of the box step, each variation seems well within the capacity of short term memory, thus could be taught in one lesson. In contrast, an attempt to teach the basic box step in closed position in one lesson would fail because of cognitive overload, likely the explanation for major frustration during the first lesson. No competent teacher would attempt to teach so much material a one-hour lesson, and it might well challenge a much longer lesson.
Principles of systematic design can provide an effective method of resolving this apparent dilemma. Begin by reviewing the tasks, adding notes.
Requisites:
Step normally - assumed
Step implies weight shift - possible need to teach.
Familiarity with western music - assumed
Distinguish between even (2/4, 4/4) and odd meters (3/4) - assumed
Step on selected beats - possible need to teach
Tasks: Closed Position
- Upper arms horizontal - teach
- Elbows slightly forward of torso - teach
- Right hand on shoulder blade - generally known
- Slight pressure - teach
- Pressure at follower's arm - low priority
- Follower's arm toward leader's shoulder - generally known
- Extended arm slightly bent at elbow - generally known
- Hands clasped gently - low priority
- Firmness at shoulder to relaxed at wrist - teach
- Torsos juxtaposed to the left - teach
- Look over partner's right shoulder - low priority
- Right foot tracks between partners feet - consequence of torso position
- Left foot steps outside partner - consequence of torso position
- Step normally - assumed
Tasks: Box Step in Closed Position
- Line of Dance counterclockwise - low priority
- Men begin on left foot, women on right. - teach
- Step forward/backward on beat one - teach
- Moving foot to stationary foot on beat two - teach
- Step to the side on beat three - teach
- Close on beat four - teach
- Close in dance means to step adjacent to stationary foot - teach
- Box step has two halves: 1(2)34, 5(6)78 - low priority
Eliminating items assumed, generally known and low priority, one is left with the following.
Requisites:
Step implies weight shift - possible need to teach.
Step on selected beats - possible need to teach
Tasks: Closed Position
- Upper arms horizontal - teach
- Elbows slightly forward of torso - teach
- Slight pressure - teach
- Firmness at shoulder to relaxed at wrist - teach
- Torsos juxtaposed to the left - teach
Tasks: Box Step in Closed Position
- Step forward/backward on beat one - - teach
- Moving foot to stationary foot on beat two - teach
- Step to the side on beat three - teach
- Close on beat four - teach
- Close in dance means to step adjacent to stationary foot - teach
With the likely need to teach one or more requisites, we still have almost double the capacity of short term memory. Fortunately, the astute designer will see immediately that there is a hierarchy and that the hierarchy divides the tasks into manageable sets. When one realizes that executing a motor skill independently is generally easier than doing so in synchrony with another actor, the lesson plan becomes clear: teach the step, then add the frame. In addition, the interjection of open frame into the mastery of the basic step would provide an intermediate level for transition to the closed frame.
Lesson 1: Box step.
Tasks: Box Step
- Step implies weight shift
- Step on selected beats
- Men begin on left foot, women on right foot.
- Moving foot to stationary foot on beat two - teach
- Step to the side on beat three - teach
- Close on beat four - teach
- Close in dance means to step adjacent to stationary foot - teach
- Keeping elbows near torso, dance with a partner.
Though one item beyond average capacity of short term memory, it is likely that the student will already have mastered at least one of the tasks. It is also possible that a few students do not even have the requisites to attempt the box step. These students should be identified in the initial assessment, and options should be discussed lest they become frustrated and give up learning to dance. Options might include private sessions, prescribed activities, or assistance from a friend at mastering the ability to identify and step on designated beats, particularly beats 1, 3, and 4.
With the first lesson mastered, the student can then add the closed frame, which also completely fills short term memory, sans a few styling details to be added later. However, this presumes mastery of the box step, closed frame, and the ability to move freely in the SQQ cadence. Mastery is distinctly different than replication, or even proficiency, either of which can be easily forgotten, at least in part. Thus, either the student must have practiced independently to the point of confidence, or the teacher should have practice past proficiency incorporated into the lesson. This should not require much contemplation; the competent teacher will incorporate ample practice into each lesson so that they assure themselves of a high degree of success.
The remainder of the lesson planning will be left to the reader.
Suggested Course Outline
Course Outline. The following course outline has proven highly effective, minimally frustrating, and extensively transferable.
Lesson 1: Cadence
SQQ cadence to slow 4/4, gradually increasing to foxtrot tempo by end of lesson.
Master SQQ with music indicating when to step and student stepping in any direction desired on any step of the cadence.
Add box: forward or backward on 1, moving foot near stationary foot on 2, side on 3, close on 4.
Have students freely select partners visually, with no touching, perhaps from across the room.
Add closed frame, perhaps with a stick as an intermediary aid.
Build in ample practice beyond proficiency for each stage.
Lesson 2: Closed Frame -
With students having mastered the cadence, their attention can be focused on execution from closed position.
Lesson 3: Twinkle
Lesson 4: Weave
Lesson 5: Underarm turns
Lesson 6: Styling for foxtrot, rumba, and general "night club" dancing.
Teaching Technique. Do not neglect problem solving during the lessons. Problem solving at any level enhances motor learning, and the dance lesson offers many opportunities for problem solving. The first might be to ask students very early in the first lesson how many ways might they take a step in the SQQ cadence; then encourage them to explore all available options. Build on this exploration when introducing a variation. Rather than prescribe a sequence of variations, allow the student to decide when to implement a variation. Encourage students to devise strings of variations on their own and to explore, discuss, and share ideas as to when best to initiate a particular variation or of ways to tie variations together. Resist prescribing; coach, suggest, shape, critique, and encourage exploration.
Students completing the above lessons with ample problem solving opportunities will be distinctly different from students in the typical dance curriculum. Not only will they have mastered the basics, but they will expect a higher quality of teaching. The redundancy of the typical dance lesson will be frustrating, but in a good way; they will be ready for styling and variations much earlier than most. Perhaps the best consequence is that the studio will have a pool of successful students ready for well-planned lessons that keep them progressing comfortably, confidently, and competently.
Persistent Media. Demonstrations, like videos, are transient media; they pass by and are gone. Still photos and text are persistent media; you can return to them at any time. Handouts with suggested activities, summaries, and list of things to do and remember can be valuable accompaniments to the dance lesson, as are references to books, videos, and web sites. Students should never leave class empty-handed. The more sensory modes you can involve, the greater the retention. Keep them busy, and keep them learning.
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©2008, J M Nelson
All rights reserved. Except for brief reviews, no portion of this document my be reproduced in any manner except by permission of the author.
J M Nelson, B.S., M.S., M. L. S., Ed. D.
Retired professor of information media with specialty in instructional design. Teacher, researcher, instructional designer, and consultant. Graduate professor, graduate research advisor and instructional development specialist at St Cloud State University from 1972 until retirement in 2002. Developed and directed the Division of Instructional Development, Learning Resources Services, St. Cloud State University, one of the first of its kind in the nation. Dr. Nelson is also an avid ballroom dancer and, in retirement, has done considerable research in the teaching and practice of social ballroom dance.
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